The Research Progress of Glial Cells: Functional Dynamics in Synapse Formation, Modulation, and Plasticity

Abstract

Background:
Glial cells, traditionally seen as passive support for neurons, are now recognized as active participants in neural development, particularly in synapse formation, modulation, and neuroplasticity. Their mechanical properties and interaction with neurons significantly impact cognitive functions such as learning and memory.

Objective:
To review and synthesize current research on the roles of glial cells in synaptic formation, modulation, and plasticity, and to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways influencing cognitive processes.

Methods:
A literature review was conducted examining studies on glial cell interactions with neurons, synaptic development, and related signaling pathways. Topics included mechanical responsiveness, gliotransmitter release, synaptic pruning, and glial-mediated modulation of excitatory and inhibitory synapses.

Results:
Recent findings confirm glial cells actively contribute to all stages of synapse development: formation, function, and elimination. They regulate synaptic strength through both direct contact and secreted factors such as cholesterol, thrombospondins, and TNF-α. Glial cells influence neurotransmitter clearance, calcium signaling, and neuroplasticity via complex pathways. Differences in excitatory vs. inhibitory synapse regulation by glial factors highlight their sophisticated and dynamic roles.

Conclusion:
Glial cells are fundamental regulators of synapse structure and function. Their ability to influence synaptic efficacy and plasticity underscores their significance in neural circuit development and cognitive function. Further investigation into their molecular mechanisms, especially in human systems, may reveal therapeutic targets for neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders.